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Optimising the Surface of Co-Cr-Mo-Ni-W Alloys for Dental Implants

Co-Cr-based alloys are the basis of most dental implant systems. They are used due to their excellent mechanical properties such as stiffness and strength. Moreover, they offer high corrosion and wear resistance. Corrosion of metallic biomaterials is mainly caused by local acidification, which can result from mechanical abrasion of the protective passivated surface and/or by microbial colonization with bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans (Sm).

To prevent these phenomena, it is important to develop coatings to protect the alloy surfaces. In addition, new surface treatments improve the tribological performance of these alloys. One such treatment is the Kolsterising(A) process from Bodycote Hardiff GmbH. The aim of this study was to optimize the surface of a Co-Cr-Mo-Ni-W alloy by applying the K(A) treatment and characterize the result.

For the first time, we compared the tribological performance of a standard Co-Cr-Mo-Ni-W implant with an implant characterized by the K(A) treatment. We also investigated the effects of the surface treatment on the osteoblastic differentiation induced by BMP peptide in vitro and on the osteogenic activity measurable by alkaline phosphatase in vivo. We found that the K(A) treated implant showed a significantly better osteogenic activity compared to the untreated implant.

Furthermore, we evaluated the cytotoxicity of different Co-Cr alloys by using mouse fibroblasts and human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B). We found that all tested alloys were within the limits of cell viability. Furthermore, we found that the surface roughness and ions release of the alloys did not influence the cytotoxicity tested. These results confirm that the K(A) treatment is a suitable surface modification to enhance the biocompatibility of Co-Cr alloys. However, we must not forget that after 2025 only a well-founded justification with sufficient evidence can lead to the granting of a CE mark for a device containing Co as CMR substance.

Co-Cr-based alloys are the basis of most dental implant systems. They are used due to their excellent mechanical properties such as stiffness and strength. Moreover, […]

The development of molybdenum disulfide

Semiconductor Molybdenum disulfide Although graphene has many dazzling advantages, it also has disadvantages, especially its inability to act as a semiconductor. Chemists and materials scientists are trying to get past graphene and find other materials. They are synthesizing two other two-dimensional flake materials that are both flexible and transparent, and have electronic properties that graphene can’t match. Molybdenum disulfide is one of them.
Molybdenum disulfide Overview
Molybdenum disulfide was synthesized in 2008 and is a member of the large family of transition metal disulfide materials (TMDs). The name represents their structure: a transition metal atom (ie, molybdenum atom) and a pair of atoms from column 16 of the periodic table including sulfur and selenium (the element family is known as the oxygen group element).
To the surprise of electronics manufacturers, all TMDs are semiconductors. They are almost the same thinness as graphene (in molybdenum disulfide , two layers of sulfur atoms sandwich a layer of molybdenum atoms like a “sandwich”), but they have other advantages. As far as molybdenum disulfide is concerned, one of the advantages is the speed at which electrons travel in the flat sheet, that is, the electron mobility. The electron migration rate of molybdenum disulfide is about 100 cm2/vs (that is, 100 electrons per square centimeter per volt second), which is much lower than the electron migration rate of crystalline silicon, which is 1400 cm2/vs, but is thinner than amorphous silicon and others. The migration speed of semiconductors is better, and scientists are studying these materials for use in future electronic products, such as flexible display screens and other electronic products that can be flexibly stretched.

Research on Molybdenum disulfide
Studies have shown that molybdenum disulfide is also extremely easy to make, even for large pieces of two-dimensional materials. This allows engineers to test their performance in electronic products at a very fast speed.
In 2011, a research team led by Andras Kis of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology published an article in “Nature-Nanotechnology”, saying that they used a single layer of molybdenum disulfide thin-film of only 0.65 nanometers to make the first transistors. It turns out that those products and subsequent products have other unique attributes than similar silicon-based products that are more technologically advanced.
In addition, molybdenum disulfide has other desirable properties, namely the direct bandgap, which allows the material to convert electrons into photons and vice versa. This feature also makes molybdenum disulfide a good candidate for use in optical devices, such as light emitters, lasers, photodetectors, and even solar cells. Some scientists said that this material also has the characteristics of abundant reserves, low price, non-toxicity, etc., so Yi-Hsien Lee believes: “Its future is bright.” However, Tomanek believes that the electron migration rate of molybdenum disulfide is still insufficient. High, it is difficult to have a competitive advantage in the crowded electronic market. The reason is the structural characteristics of this material. When electrons move inside it, they will bounce off the structure when they encounter larger metal atoms, thereby reducing the migration speed. But some scientists said that this “stumbling block” will be short-lived. Researchers are trying to circumvent these obstacles by making a slightly thicker multilayer molybdenum disulfide sheet, thereby providing a path for the compressed electrons to bypass the roadblock.

(aka. Technology Co. Ltd.) is a trusted global chemical material supplier & manufacturer with over 12 years’ experience in providing super high-quality chemicals and Nanomaterials. The Molybdenum disulfide produced by our company has high purity, fine particle size and impurity content. Please contact us if necessary.

Semiconductor Molybdenum disulfide Although graphene has many dazzling advantages, it also has disadvantages, especially its inability to act as a semiconductor. Chemists and materials scientists […]

Properties and Uses of Boron Carbide

What is Boron Carbide?

Boron carburide (also known as black diamand) is an organic material with the molecular formula B4C. It’s a gray-black fine powder. It is among the hardest substances known. The other two are cubic boron-nitride and diamond. It’s used in bulletproof vests, tank armor and many other industrial applications. Its Mohs hardness rating is 9.3.

Boron carbide absorbs a large amount of neutrons while forming no radioisotopes. It is therefore an ideal neutron absorption material in nuclear power plants. The neutron absorption materials are primarily used to control the rate at which nuclear fission occurs. Boron carbide, which is used in nuclear reactors, is mostly made into a controlled rod shape. But sometimes it’s made into powder due to the increased surface area.

Due to its low density, it is a good material for lightweight armor and ceramic reinforcement phases. It is widely used in ceramic reinforcing phase, lightweight armor, neutron absorbers and other applications. As boron carbide can be easily manufactured and is less expensive than diamond and cubic Boron Nitride, it is used more often. It can be used in place of expensive diamonds and is often used for grinding, drilling, and grinding.

Boron carbide Powder Uses

(1) The field is national defense. Bullet-proofing has been done with boron carbide ceramics since the 1960s. Comparing it to other materials, its characteristics are easy portability and high toughness. It plays an important role in the lightweight armour of armed aircraft and the bulletproof body armor of helicopters. The British used this material as a raw materials to manufacture armor that can protect against armor-piercing projectsiles.

In terms of chemical materials. To increase the wear resistance of alloy materials and their strength, boron-carbide is used as an alloying agent. This can be boronized directly on the metal to produce a thin layer iron boride.

(3) Wear-resistant field. Boron carbide ceramics are visible in a number of industrial nozzles. These include desander nozzles and nozzles designed for high-pressure water guns. They are often chosen by factories for their durability under extreme conditions, and cost-effectiveness. . It can also be used to avoid pollution due to abrasive waste during grinding. As a diamond abrasive substitute, boron carbide can be used to reduce the cost of processing various metals as well as jade glass.

(4) Nuclear energy. boron-carbide is commonly used as a neutron absorber in safety rods, control rods and other components. This helps to regulate the rate of nuclear fission, while also protecting human safety.

(aka. Technology Co. Ltd., a trusted global chemical materials supplier & manufacture with more than 12 years experience in providing super-high quality chemicals and nanomaterials. The B4C powder that we produce is of high purity with a fine particle size. If you require lower, please Contact us.

What is Boron Carbide? Boron carburide (also known as black diamand) is an organic material with the molecular formula B4C. It’s a gray-black fine powder. […]

Boride for rocket construction

What products can boride be used in? Boride Boride has a high melting temperature, high conductivity as well as high stability. At high temperatures, its oxidation resistence is superior to that of Group IVB Metal Boride. Boride dissolves in Molten Alkali. Boride from rare earth and alkaline metals does not corrode by wet oxygen or dilute Hydrochloric Acid, but it is soluble when exposed to nitric.

Almost all boride compounds have metallic appearance and properties, with high conductivity and positive resistance-temperature coefficient. The Ti, Zr, and HF boride has a better conductivity than their metal. Boride’s creep resistance is excellent, which makes it a good material for rockets and gas turbines that need to maintain their strength and resist corrosion. The various alloys, cermets, or borides based on carbide, nitride or boride can be used for the manufacturing of rocket structural parts, aeronautical device component, turbine components. They are also useful in specimen clamps, instrument components and high-temperature materials testing machines.

Boride ceramics: Are they fragile?
Boride Ceramics have a high melting point as well as high hardness, thermal stability, and conductivity. Boride can be produced by normal pressurized sintering, ISOSTATIC pressing or hot pressed sintering following conventional molding or injection mold.

What are boride compound?
A binary compound containing Boron, metals and nonmetals like carbon. MMBN may be expressed using a generic formula. It is an interfilling and does not obey the valence rules. Boride can be formed by other metals as well as zinc (Zn), cadmium(CD), Mercury (Hg), gallium(Ga), indium (In), thallium(Tl), Germanium (GE), tin (Sn), lead (PB), and Bismuth. The crystals have high hardness and melting points, are stable in their chemical properties, and insoluble in hot concentrated acid. They’re used in fire resistance, grinding and Superconductor class.

Boride: A micronutrient with a vital role ?
Almost all superalloys are added with B to increase their high temperature serviceability. It is believed that B tends towards segregation at grain borders, which can help to prevent grain boundaries from migrating at high temperature. Superalloys contain B in two forms: as solid solution or boride precipitates. B’s solid solubility in superalloys is low. Therefore, a variety of Boride will be precipitated at high temperatures. Even though these boride materials are widely used in superalloys and alloys, they are only known at a relative macro-scale. The further understanding of the fine structure of precipitates is helpful to optimize the material design and elaborate the structure-performance relationship reasonably.

Boride powder is available at a reasonable price
(aka. Technology Co. Ltd., a trusted global chemical supplier & manufacturer has over 12 years experience in providing high-quality Nanomaterials and chemicals. Currently, we have developed a successful series of powdered materials. Our OEM service is also available. If you’re looking for Boride powder Powder Please contact us. Please click on Needed products Send us an inquiry.

What products can boride be used in? Boride Boride has a high melting temperature, high conductivity as well as high stability. At high temperatures, its […]

Sodium Polyphosphate and Gum Disease

sodium polyphosphate is an umbrella term for a group of food additives that are combinations of sodium (a salt) and phosphate, an inorganic chemical. Sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) and its cousins, sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) and trisodium pyrophosphate (TSPP), are used to stabilize foods like mashed potatoes and curdled milk. They help foods retain their moisture, resulting in better texture and flavor. It also prevents foods from becoming greasy or falling apart during cooking or refrigeration.

Besides their use as food additives, these compounds have other uses. They can be used as cleaning agents to remove soap scum and water spots from kitchen appliances or automobiles. They can also be used as anti-corrosives and as a deflocculant in mineral processing and oil well drilling muds. sodium polyphosphates are hygroscopic, meaning they attract water molecules from the air. This is beneficial because they can enhance emulsification and increase water retention in foods such as meat, seafood and dairy products.

STPP and other phosphates can also curb the development of dental calculus, or hardened plaque, by trapping calcium (Ca2+) ions in saliva. This stops the formation of plaque and prevents its mineralisation. This is because the calcium cations are held in solution by the negatively charged chains of phosphates that make up the molecule. The chelating effect of the phosphates then allows the dissolved calcium to be absorbed normally by the digestive system and not integrated into the plaque matrix. This is why these compounds are very useful in preventing the onset of gum disease.

sodium polyphosphate is an umbrella term for a group of food additives that are combinations of sodium (a salt) and phosphate, an inorganic chemical. Sodium […]

PTFE Sintering Temperature Control

ptfe sintering temperature

The lengthy PTFE sintering cycle has been a longstanding constraint on PTFE fabrication productivity. Moreover, the sintering heat treatment also consumes a considerable amount of energy and thus contributes to substantial production costs. Shortening the sintering cycle has been a consistent industrial desire, and improving utilization of sintering oven capacity has become a critical need for industry.

This article demonstrates that by changing the sintering temperature, the deformation of a sinter-molded PTFE component can be substantially reduced during the sintering heat treatment. It is shown that different strain mechanisms cause the sintering deformation: thermal expansion during heating, melting and void closure at high temperatures, and crystallisation and thermal contraction during cooling. It is also shown that the sintering deformation of an isotropic green material can be simulated with an effective plasticity model.

The sintering cycle of the present invention provides for controlled cooling of the sinter-molded PTFE article after the end of the oven segment, so that the specific gravity and physical properties that are primarily determined by the level of crystallinity develop at acceptably uniform values over the entire surface of the article during the final phase of cooling. The control of the cooling rate is achieved by utilizing an insulation system that is sufficiently dense to effectively limit the sintering temperature to a value at which the oven segment of the process ends, without chilling the sinter-molded PTFE. The insulating density should be a minimum of 295 g/m3, but preferably less than this.

ptfe sintering temperatureThe lengthy PTFE sintering cycle has been a longstanding constraint on PTFE fabrication productivity. Moreover, the sintering heat treatment also consumes a considerable […]

Aluminum Calcium Alloy

A highly ductile, tin-like metal, aluminum calcium alloy has excellent corrosion resistance and is ideally suited for the production of high-performance, lightweight construction materials. It is also a very good raw material for the manufacture of deep cycle batteries.

Calcium, Ca, is one of the alkaline-earth metals and the fifth most abundant element on Earth, although it does not occur free in nature. It is the lightest of all metals and has a low melting point. It does not readily oxidize in dry air at room temperature, but it is very reactive with water owing to the exothermic liberation of hydrogen. It reacts with most halogens and forms numerous compounds, such as fluoride and hydroxide.

The present invention is directed to an aluminum-magnesium-scandium-calcium alloy with a high magnesium content of between 1 and 5 wgt.-% and a density of less than 2.6 g/cm3. It is characterized in that the calcium 14 contained in the alloy preferably comprises at least 1.0 wgt.-%, more preferably 2.5 wgt.-%, and still more preferably 6.0 wgt.-% of the total mass of the alloy.

In the present invention, the aforementioned alloy is produced by adding calcium in a very controlled manner to molten aluminum in an atmosphere which does not contain oxygen. This prevents the formation of calcium oxide which otherwise would reduce the alloy’s ductility and corrosion resistance. In this way, the alloy has a much better overall performance than is the case for established, industrially used aluminum-magnesium-scandium alloys having a magnesium content of under 6 wgt.-%, which are characterized by their very limited solubility for calcium 14.

A highly ductile, tin-like metal, aluminum calcium alloy has excellent corrosion resistance and is ideally suited for the production of high-performance, lightweight construction materials. It […]

Properties and Synthesis Method of Bismuth Oxide Nano Powder

What is bismuth oxid?

The pure bismuth trioxide (nanopowder ) is classified into three types: a, b and d. A type is yellow, monoclinic crystals with a melting point of 825. It’s soluble in both acid and water but insoluble in alkali. B type is bright yellow to orange tetragonal crystalline system with relative density 8.55. Melting point 860. Soluble in acid, but not water. Hydrogen and hydrocarbons can be used to reduce the material into metallic bismuth. The cubic fluorite structure of dBi2O3 makes it a unique material. The crystal lattice of d-Bi2O3 is void in 1/4, which gives it a high oxygen conductivity. Bismuth Oxide is mainly used for electronic ceramic powders. It can also be used as photoelectric materials, superconducting high temperature materials and catalysts. As an additive used in electronic ceramic materials, bismuth dioxide is usually required to have purity levels above 99.15%. Main application objects include ceramic capacitors, zinc oxide varistors, and ferrite magnet materials.

The method for synthesis of bismuth dioxide

The aqueous sodium solution without carbon dioxide, which is a solution of sodium chloride in water, was mixed with the bismuth-nitrate solution at 80-90degC. During the precipitation procedure, the solution remains alkaline. A white, volume-swelling Bismuth Oxide Hydrate Bi(OH3) is precipitated. This solution is heated, stirred and dehydrated to yellow bismuth trioxide. After decantation of water, filtering, and drying the product, bismuth dioxide, is obtained.

A 0.1 mol/L Bismuth Nitrate Solution dissolved in 1 mole/L Nitric Acid (80 to 90deg C.) was dropped into a 1.5 mol/L NaOH aqueous dissolved solution to mix the two. The solution is alkaline even after precipitation. The white, volume-expanded, bismuth oxide trihydrate Bi(OH3) will precipitate, but it will dehydrate and turn into a light yellow bismuth trioxide after stirring in a warm solution. Wash 15 times in water without carbon dioxide or air, then filter and dry.

After melting the metal bismuth in the graphite crucible, an arc forms between the graphite and metal surfaces to heat and oxidize the metal under oxygen flow. For a continuous supply of oxygen to the crucible, it should be kept in a large vessel and placed on agitator. The reaction is carried out at 750-800degC and the b bismuth trioxide is generated quickly with a purity level of 99.8%. A high-temperature b-type phase product can then be obtained by quenching the product in water or a metal plate.

(aka. Technology Co. Ltd., a trusted global chemical materials supplier & manufacture with more than 12 years experience in providing super-high quality chemicals and Nanomaterials. bi2o3 powder manufactured by our company is high in purity, has fine particles and low impurity levels. If you need lower, please Contact us.

What is bismuth oxid? The pure bismuth trioxide (nanopowder ) is classified into three types: a, b and d. A type is yellow, monoclinic crystals […]

What is chemical foamed cement?

Chemically foamed cement Chemically foamed The use of chemical reactions to produce gas in cement materials is known as cement. This chemically foamed form and process is called chemically foamed concrete.

Chemical foamed concrete insulation board
Chemical foamed concrete is the result of a chemical reaction with the cement to release gas. It is notable for the fact that chemical reactions directly create a large number bubbles to achieve foaming. To react, it is only necessary to mix the foaming material and cement composite with water. The foaming process can take between 5 to 15 mins, and foam cells that are formed after foam molding have a honeycomb cell structure.

Foaming agent classification
Foaming agents Chemical foaming and physical foaming are roughly divided. Physical foaming agent requirements include: being non-toxic and odorless; non-corrosive; non-combustible. Air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons and freons are all common physical blowing agent. Chemical blowing agent substances can release gases, such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen when heated. Chemical blowing agent requirements include: the gas released during decomposition must be nontoxic, noncorrosive, and noncombustible. The gas should not have any effect on the product’s physical or chemical properties. The gas release rate should be controlled and the foaming agents should have good dispersibility within the plastic. Inorganic foaming agents such as sodium bicarbonate and ammonium carbonate and organic foaming agents such as azoformamide and azobisisobutyronitrile are widely used.

Insulation Board
Cement foamed insulation board is the latest inorganic thermal insulation material. It’s also fire-resistant and energy-saving. It is made mainly of inorganic phase-change materials and silicates as its main raw material. Additions include multifunctional additives (multifunctional foaming agents), special fibers, and other material. This is a new type of thermal board that has been formed through chemical foaming. The board offers good thermal insulation, is lightweight and shock-resistant, has a good relative strength, is not fragile, has good water-resistance, it’s non-toxic, harmless and environmentally friendly, and can last the same time as the building.

The price is foaming agents
(aka. Technology Co. Ltd., a trusted global chemical supplier & manufacturer has over 12 years experience in providing high-quality Nanomaterials and chemicals. Our company is currently developing a range of powder materials. Our OEM service is also available. Please contact us if you’re looking for foaming agent. Please click here to learn more. Needed products Send us a message.

Chemically foamed cement Chemically foamed The use of chemical reactions to produce gas in cement materials is known as cement. This chemically foamed form and […]

Talk about the past and present life of carbon nanotubes and graphene

Are carbon nanotubes graphene?
Both graphene, and carbon nanotubes, are made from carbon atoms. Carbon nanotubes, on the other hand, are made by curling graphene. Carbon nanotubes, which are made up of hexagonal tubes of several tens layers of carbon atoms, are formed by arranging the atoms in hexagons. Carbon nanotubes look like graphene (a hexagonal carbon grid) that has been rolled into cylindrical form. Both graphene (a hexagonal lattice of carbon) and carbon nanotubes are characterized by extraordinary mechanical and electrical properties.

Research on carbon nanotubes, as it stands, has reached an advanced level in terms of preparation, performance characterization, and application exploration. Due to their close connection, both research methods have a lot in common. Carbon nanotubes were the original inspiration for many graphene-related research methods.

What is different between carbon nanotubes (CNT) and graphene (Graphene)?

Graphene, a two-dimensional substance, is a layer graphite with carbon atoms arranged hexagonally in a honeycomb lattice. Carbon nanotubes consist of hollow cylinders. They are basically a graphene layer rolled into an octagonal cylinder. Both are representative of two-dimensional nanomaterials (2D) as well as one-dimensional (1D).

From a structural perspective, carbon nanotubes represent a carbon crystal with a one dimensional structure. Graphene, on the other hand, is composed only of a layer of a carbon atom, which gives it a two dimensional structure.

Graphene, from a performance perspective, has properties that are comparable or superior to those of carbon nanotubes. These include high electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity; high carrier mobility; free-electron space and high strength and rigidity.

According to their number of layers they can be divided in single-walled and multi-walled nanotubes. The single-walled carbon Nanotubes are also divided. Layer graphene or graphene microplatelets.

Is graphene stronger or carbon nanotubes

Both graphite and carbon nanotubes are graphite in essence. But the arrangement and combinations of carbon atoms differ, creating spiral carbon nanotubes or sheet-shaped graphene. They both share some graphite characteristics.
Graphene, on the other hand, is much superior in the long term to any nanofiller or carbon nanotubes at transferring the extraordinary strength and mechanical characteristics to the host material. Carbon nanotubes are achieving similar results, but in the long term, graphene has more advantages.

Although graphene nanotubes and graphene have similar origins, their future is likely to be different. The dispute between two-dimensional and three-dimensional material is the primary cause. Nanowires and microtubes often have a disadvantage in competition with thin film materials. As an example, carbon nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes can be considered as single crystals with high aspect ratios. Due to the limitations of the current synthesis technology, it is not possible to obtain crystals of carbon nanotubes with macroscopic sizes. This limits the use and application for carbon nanotubes. The graphene structure is two-dimensional and has several properties that are unmatched (such as electrical conductivity, strength, and heat conduction). It can also grow in an area of a great deal. Combining bottom-up with top-down can lead to exciting future applications.

How is graphene transformed into carbon nanotubes

For carbon nanotubes to be formed, graphene and the carbon atoms are manipulated into a thin plate that is then rolled up into a tube. The graphene sheets that are used to produce nanotubes have a two-dimensional structure because graphene has only a one atom thickness.

A new catalyst made of graphene and carbon nanotubes can lead to a revolution in clean energy

Researchers have developed promising graphene/carbon nanotube catalysers to better control chemical reactions important for the production of hydrogen fuel.

Fuel cells, water electrolyzers and fuel cells that are efficient and cheap will be at the core of the hydrogen fuel economy. This is one the most promising alternatives to fossil fuels. The electrocatalysts that are used in these devices make them work. Developing low-cost, efficient catalysts will be crucial for making hydrogen fuel a viable option. Researchers from Aalto University created a new kind of catalyst material for these technologies.

The team, in collaboration with CNRS, created a graphene-carbon Nanotube hybrid that is highly porous and contains single atoms known to act as catalysts. Carbon nanotubes are allotropes, or two-dimensional and three-dimensional versions of carbon that are each one atom thick. Carbon nanotubes and graphene are more popular than traditional materials in the industry and academia due to their exceptional performance. The world is awash with interest. They developed an easy and scalable way to grow all these nanomaterials together and combine their properties into a single product.

The catalyst is typically deposited onto the substrate. Researchers ignore the role that the substrate has in the final reaction of the catalyst. But for this type of catalyst, they have discovered that it is important. The researchers discovered that the porous nature of the material allowed it to access more catalyst sites located at the interface between the substrate and the material. The researchers developed a new electrochemical microscopy analysis method to determine how the interface contributed to the catalytic process and to produce the most potent catalyst. They hope their research on how the matrix influences the catalytic activities of porous material will provide the basis for rational design and guidance for future electrochemical energy devices.

(aka. Technology Co. Ltd., a trusted global chemical supplier & manufacturer has more than 12 years of experience in providing high-quality Nanomaterials and chemicals. Currently, we have developed a successful series of powdered materials. Our OEM service is also available. To send an inquiry, click on the desired product or send us an e-mail.

Are carbon nanotubes graphene? Both graphene, and carbon nanotubes, are made from carbon atoms. Carbon nanotubes, on the other hand, are made by curling graphene. […]

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